Tag Archives: ethology

Etología, caballos y bienestar

Hemos recuperado este articulo escrito originalmente para la revista Horse Evolution en septiembre 2016.

¿Cuánto sabemos  y cómo se puede mejorar su bienestar?

“La única constante en la vida, es el cambio”. Nuestra forma de ver y entender a los caballos, también cambia. 

Nuestra milenaria relación con los caballos ha quedado plasmada en pinturas rupestres que datan en más de 15.000 años . Les cazábamos como fuente de alimento y para obtener cuero. Con toda probabilidad, el éxito en la caza, dependía en parte de nuestros conocimientos sobre el comportamiento y los hábitos de las presas.

Con el paso del tiempo conseguimos domesticar a los caballos hace unos 5.000-6.000 años. Les sacamos de los entornos en los que habían evolucionado, y les proporcionamos unas condiciones ambientales que eran más provechosas para el ser humano. Su domesticación supuso un gran cambio en nuestra forma de relacionarnos con ellos, pues los teníamos “más a mano”. Este hecho, facilitó una diversificación de las formas en las que podíamos sacarle a este animal más provecho; tracción, transporte, deporte y ocio.

Después del largo recorrido juntos, sería lógico pensar que sobre caballos sabemos mucho. De hecho, es así. Sabemos muchísimo, al menos lo suficiente para ofrecerles una vida más saludable sea cual sea su rol doméstico, ya que además de los avances científicos, nos avalan miles de años de experiencia.

Existen unos 60 millones de caballos en el mundo. Como el hombre y el perro, supone una de las especies más cosmopolita, pues se puede encontrar en casi todo los países del mundo. Desafortunadamente, la mayoría sigue viviendo en condiciones “infraequinas”. Condiciones a las que no se pueden adaptar bien, a pesar de los miles de años que han pasado desde su domesticación. En parte, esto se debe a la ignorancia, por una falta de conocimientos generales en ciertos sectores de la población. En ocasiones, también los conocimientos que tenemos chocan frontalmente con nuestras creencias o tradiciones culturales. En este caso, dejamos de considerar y aceptar nuevas formas, aunque los conocimientos estén disponibles.

A lo largo de nuestra trayectoria con los caballos, nos acompañan dos corrientes de pensamiento muy opuestas. La primera, es considerar a los animales como meros autómatas, máquinas carentes de conciencia y sentimiento.  Esta creencia ha legitimado pésimas condiciones de vida, y  gran parte del maltrato que siguen sufriendo hoy los caballos. La otra corriente es el antropomorfismo; atribuirles características exclusivamente humanas a los animales o a los objetos. El antropomorfismo, hasta hace relativamente poco, era un tema tabú para la mayoría de científicos, ya que suele ser perjudicial considerar que las necesidades de los caballos, motivos, y conductas sean iguales a los nuestros. Y a su vez, porque negar que los tengan, aunque en diferente grado que nosotros, les perjudica aun más.

Afortunadamente,  la progresiva acumulación de avances científicos sobre caballos y otros animales, nos ha brindado la oportunidad de comprender como nunca sus hábitos y conductas naturales. Estos avances ayudan a cuestionar muchos dogmas, tanto antiguos como nuevos, que asolan el mundo del caballo en el ámbito humano.

Debemos recordar que el comportamiento es la primera línea de defensa de los animales, son sus herramientas biológicas para poder interactuar con un entorno en constante cambio. La etología, estudia estas herramientas en entornos naturales (o simulaciones de ella). Se observan, describen, miden e interpretan conductas para entender y explicar patrones, procesos, y las estructuras mediante las cuales los organismos se adaptan a su entorno; su función biológica.

Uno de los principios fundamentales de la etología, es que los comportamientos, igual que cualquier otra característica de los seres vivos, son fruto de la evolución y por tanto modificados por la selección natural; los rasgos que confieren una ventaja reproductiva a un individuo sobre el resto de una población, serán seleccionados para pasar su genética a futuras poblaciones.

Cuando estudiamos las conductas, intentamos averiguar sus causas. Podemos diferenciar dos tipos de causas; las proximales y las distales. Básicamente, las proximales explican cómo funciona un comportamiento a través de sus causas fisiológicas o ambientales. Sin embargo, las distales se centran en el “por qué” de los comportamientos a través de las fuerzas evolutivas que actúan sobre ellos. De hecho, las causas últimas predisponen a los organismos para reaccionar ante las causas próximas.

Con esto en mente, es imprescindible entender cómo los caballos se comportan viviendo libres y sin  la intervención del hombre. Sus conductas en un entorno natural nos proporcionan una vista holística de cómo solucionan su día a día en un entorno para el cual están mejor adaptados. Sin embargo, la gran mayoría de caballos no viven en su entorno natural, ya que los hemos incorporado al nuestro. Un mundo muy diferente, uno “usual” para caballos domésticos, pero lejos de ser natural.

Durante siglos hemos estudiado a los caballos en condiciones “usuales”, culpándoles a veces por comportamientos indeseados, cuando sólo reflejaban su incapacidad de adaptación a un medio hostil. Las estereotipias son un claro ejemplo de una vida ‘infraequina’. 

La elevada tasa de agresión que observamos en entornos sociales domésticos, no tiene nada que ver con lo que se observa cuando los caballos viven como caballos. Estudios comparativos nos indican que los caballos domésticos tienen tasas más altas de agresión que los que viven libremente; de 47 agresiones por hora entre caballos alimentados con cubos de concentrados, la tasa de agresiones bajó a 13, cuando esos mismos caballos fueron soltados en un prado. Aunque la bajada en la tasa de agresión es importante entre estas dos situaciones, en comparación con las 1,9 y 1,2 agresiones/hora observadas en caballos ferales, sigue siendo altísima. Durante años, la culpa de muchos de sus hábitos indeseados se les atribuía a los animales en sí.

Ahora, esto ha cambiado. La mayoría de personas involucradas con los caballos, entienden que el bienestar de éste, se promueve cuando el animal es capaz de realizar las actividades que más se parezcan al repertorio conductual de sus conespecíficos viviendo en libertad, es decir, su comportamiento natural. Una comprensión de sus patrones conductuales, propios para cada especie, nos facilita mucha información acerca de sus requerimientos básicos, preferencias y aversiones. Gracias a la etología y otras disciplinas, hemos acumulado un sinfín de estudios sobre caballos que nos ayudan a entender sus pautas de comportamiento, sus ricas vidas sociales, y su nicho ecológico.

Con la etología aplicada a caballos domésticos, también entendemos mejor como los caballos, sacados de su estado natural, reaccionan y hacen frente a los desafíos en su entorno y manejo humano. La suma de estos estudios nos indica que la domesticación puede haber alterado muchas características físicas a lo largo de los años, pero las conductas típicas de la especie, han cambiado poco. De hecho, en casi todas las poblaciones de caballos ferales estudiadas, surge una lógica conductual aplastante, su ‘ethos’, esculpido por millones de años de fuerza evolutiva. En cualquier lugar que los caballos se hayan soltado o escapado, por omisión, se han observado características muy similares, pero no necesariamente iguales. Son herbívoros que viven en bandas sociales, y juntos pasan la mayor parte de su día (entre 15 y 18 horas) pastando variedad de forrajes. 

No es sorprendente que negándoles la oportunidad de expresar estas conductas perjudiquemos su bienestar, aprendizaje, manejo, y rendimiento. En las próximas entregas, nos adentraremos en el fascinante mundo natural de los caballos, y como los conocimientos etológicos nos ayudan mejorar la calidad de vida de nuestros caballos.

Kinji Imanishi : Pioneering primatologist and horse ethologist

Dedicated to the memory of Dr. Kinji Imanishi

Kinji Imanishi (1902–1992) was an eminent Japanese zoologist and ecologist known for his contributions to the field of ecology. His pioneering studies on several primate species, including Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata), helped establish the field of primatology in Japan. Imanishi and co-workers founded Kyoto University’s Primate Research Institute in 1967.

For many years he observed and documented the complex social structures and relationships among macaque individuals, including dominance hierarchies, social bonds, and patterns of social grooming. Imanishi also looked into the relationships between macaques and their environments, including diets, home ranges, and adaptations to different habitats.

However, it is less known, that Imanishi happened upon a group of wild Japanese monkeys (macaques) when he was studying free-ranging horses with Shunzo Kawamura, and Junichiro Itani, while they were conducting research on free-ranging horses in Toimisaki, Japan in 1948.

From right, Itani, Imanishi, Kawamura. Upper, Tokuda, at Toi Cape, which
was known for wild horses. (Photo from Itani Jun’ichiro Archives at PRI,
Kyoto University)

From right, Itani, Imanishi, Kawamura. Upper, Tokuda, at Toi Cape, which
was known for wild horses. (Photo from Itani Jun’ichiro Archives at PRI,
Kyoto University)

So, Imanishi was not only a pioneering primatologist but he was also undoubtedly one of the first equine ethologists to study free-living horses. The population he studied between 1947-1948 had a total of 70 horses, of which only three were male. The horses lived half the year in a grassier area and the other half in a woodier landscape with more shrubs and trees. What he referred to as the winter quarter. Based on his observations, he noted that horses preferred grazing when grasses prevailed but switched to browsing when in the semi-forested winter quarter.

One of his greatest contributions to the study of animal behavior was identifying and naming every individual animal. In his notes, animals were identified by numbers and the more salient ones with names. The technique of individual identification was successively implemented in the following years in the primate groups he studied. This, he suggested would help observe and track social interactions over time.

Individual identification is now standard practice for observational research!

We can also thank him for establishing the Japanese Method. This consists of observing and recording social interactions for prolonged lengths of time. Both individual identification and prolonged research are crucial to gaining familiarity with the subjects of observation allowing for a more detailed analysis of social life.

He also considered closeness and time spent together to be an indicator of the degree of relationships between individuals. This he referred to as ‘neighbourhood’.

In his study, he reflects on the horse community; ‘There is no power, no centrality, just harmony’.

“力 と い う こ と も な い 。 どれ が 中 心 と い う こ と もな い 。 聖 心 を 求 め る と す れ ば”

Imanishi found that groups (bands) of horses shared overlapping home ranges (although he used the term territory) and they shared the range as good neighbours might. He also highlights that within a home range, there are central core areas where the majority of time is spent. This he describes by using the terms ‘bigger world’ or ‘smaller world’.

He also found that band (harem) stallions allowed some bachelors to hang out nearby, on some sort of perimeter, and that these would attempt to attract mares with less social bonds from the group. This is often the case in many feral populations studied. His studies also led him to suggest that horses typically follow the lead of a mare. This too is likely the case in many free-ranging populations, especially those with a heavily skewed sex ratio.

In addition, he emphasized the importance of understanding the cultures within animal societies. He suggested that culture is the product of the accumulated knowledge and behaviors of a society or species that are passed down through generations and shape their adaptation to the environment. For Imanishi, culture played an important role in the evolution and adaptation of a species, and he emphasized the importance of cultural transmission in shaping the behavior of individuals and populations.

An example he used would be dietary preferences, which he considered were not solely based on biological or environmental factors, but also on cultural traditions and learned behaviors. He considered that cultural transmission shaped the feeding habits of animals and challenged the idea that animal behavior was solely determined by instinct or other biological factors. Again, his thoughts on culture in animals other than man were pioneering.

“If individuals learn from one another, their behaviour may, over time, become different from that in other groups, thus creating a characteristic culture.” Kinji Imanish (1952)

The majority of works and studies by Kinji Imanishi were written and published in Japanese. This may likely be the reason he is not as well known as he should be. Another reason could be that many scientists did not pay much attention to work that challenged their long-standing assumptions. Basically, censored by western science gatekeepers. Or simply, Imanishi’s work was too ahead of its time, and many of his ideas only became widely accepted decades later.

In fact, in the following years, his own students amongst other scientists re-vindicated the importance of cultural transmission in animal societies through social learning of feeding habits, tool use, and song. A study on wild chimps (Pan troglodytes) by Toshisada Nishida (1968) found that chimpanzees learned new feeding behaviors from each other and that these food-getting behaviors were passed down to the next generations. The cultural transmission of tool use in captive chimpanzees was studied and confirmed by Yukimaru Sugiyama (1979).

Imanishi’s research and insights have provided valuable knowledge and understanding of animal behavior that has influenced the field of primatology and ethology. His work has contributed to our understanding of the complex social behaviors of primates and the ways in which cultural practices can shape the behavior of different groups of animals.

Further reading:

Imanishi, K., (1953). “Social life of semi-wild horses in Toimisaki. II: Horses in their winter-quarters”. The Annual of Animal Psychology. 3: 11–31. doi:10.2502/janip1944.3.11.

Imanishi, K., (1957). Identification: A process of enculturation in the subhuman society of Macaca fuscata . Primates 1, 1–29.

Nishida, T., (1968). The social group of wild chimpanzees in the Mahali Mountains. Primates 9, 167–224. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01730971

Nishida, T., (1973). The ant-gathering behavior by the use of tools among wild chimpanzees of the Mahali Mountains. J. Hum. Evol., 2: 357–370.

Sugiyama, Y., Koman, J., (1979). Tool-using and -making behavior in wild chimpanzees at Bossou, Guinea. Primates 20, 513–524 https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02373433

Yamagiwa, Juichi (2014). “The Legacy of Kinji Imanishi” (PDF). Kyoto University Research Activities. 3 (4): 4–6.

Silent invasion: Imanishi’s primatology and cultural bias in science – by Frans de Waal
Without Walls – by Frans de Waal
Kinji Imanishi and 60 years of Japanese primatology

Xenophon – On Horses

Xenophon, a Greek soldier, historian, essayist, philosopher, and horseman, (431-354 B. C.) was born to a well to do Athenian family and was a student of one of the fathers of Greek Philosophy: Socrates. He was the first to take notes on the conversation of Socrates, sharing these with others under the title of ‘Memorabilia.’

He took part in the campaign of the Persian prince Cyrus the Younger against his brother, king Artaxerxes II Mnemon, which failed in the battle of Cunaxa. Xenophon led the famous retreat of the Ten Thousand, becoming a mercenary leader with a band of notoriously ill-disciplined Greek mercenaries who were trapped in Mesopotamia.

On his return to Greece, he worked as a mercenary and was rewarded with a country estate where he enjoyed the life of the landed gentry. Xenophon, eventually lost his estate in a war and resettled in Corinth for the remainder of his life.


Περ ὶ ἱ ππικ ῆ ς (peri hippikēs) – ‘On horsemanship’

In this little book, Xenophon makes a huge contribution to horsemanship. He shares his experience and insight for the selection, care, and training of horses. His advice notes the importance of understanding behavior, the importance of welfare, and the general well-being of horses.

Over 2000 years have passed, and his advice has stood the test of time. Unfortunately, although many consider him the father of horsemanship, especially among elitist riders, his timeless advice remains highly ignored in modern equestrian circles.

“The majesty of men themselves is best discovered in the graceful handling of such animals.”

No Hoof no horse.

“Just as a house would be of little use, however beautiful its upper stories, if the underlying foundations were not what they ought to be, so there is little use to be extracted from a horse, and in particular a war-horse, if unsound in his feet, however excellent his other points; since he could not turn a single one of them to good account.”

Reinforce wanted behavior, Do not reinforce unwanted behavior.

“At the same time pains should be taken on the owner’s part to see that the colt is gentle, tractable, and affectionate when delivered to the professional trainer. That is a condition of things which for the most part may be brought about at home and by the groom — if he knows how to let the animal connect hunger and thirst and the annoyance of flies with solitude, whilst associating food and drink and escape from sources of irritation with the presence of man. As the result of this treatment, necessarily the young horse will acquire — not fondness merely, but an absolute craving for human beings. A good deal can be done by touching, stroking, patting those parts of the body which the creature likes to have so handled. These are the hairiest parts, or where, if there is anything annoying him, the horse can least of all apply relief himself.”

Xenophon-On horsemanship sp

Desensitize gently

“The groom should have standing orders to take his charge through crowds, and to make him familiar with all sorts of sights and noises; and if the colt shows sign of apprehension at them, he must teach him — not by cruel, but by gentle handling — that they are not really formidable.”

Revise hoofs frequently

“But if food and exercise with a view to strengthening the horse’s body are matters of prime consideration, no less important is it to pay attention to the feet. A stable with a damp and smooth floor will spoil the best hoof which nature can give.”

Be aware of your emotional disposition. Be calm, be soft, and be gentle.

“The one best precept — the golden rule — in dealing with a horse is never to approach him angrily. Anger is so devoid of forethought that it will often drive a man to do things which in a calmer mood he will regret.Thus, when a horse is shy of any object and refuses to approach it, you must teach him that there is nothing to be alarmed at, particularly if he be a plucky animal; or, failing that, touch the formidable object yourself, and then gently lead the horse up to it. The opposite plan of forcing the frightened creature by blows only intensifies its fear, the horse mentally associating the pain he suffers at such a moment with the object of suspicion, which he naturally regards as its cause.”

Against pulling on the bit, spurring or whipping!

“But possibly you are not content with a horse serviceable for war. You want to find him a showy, attractive animal, with a certain grandeur of bearing. If so, you must abstain from pulling at his mouth with the bit, or applying the spur and whip — methods commonly adopted by people with a view to a fine effect, though, as a matter of fact, they thereby achieve the very opposite of what they are aiming at. That is to say, by dragging the mouth up they render the horse blind instead of alive to what is in front of him; and what with spurring and whipping they distract the creature to the point of absolute bewilderment and danger.”

Xenophon-On horsemanship sp

Reinforcing through rest and relaxation.

“For ourselves, however, far the best method of instruction, as we keep repeating, is to let the horse feel that whatever he does in obedience to the rider’s wishes will be followed by some rest and relaxation.”

Grace and beauty over clumsy gestures

“To quote a dictum of Simon, what a horse does under compulsion he does blindly, and his performance is no more beautiful than would be that of a ballet-dancer taught by whip and goad. The performances of horse or man so treated would seem to be displays of clumsy gestures rather than of grace and beauty. What we need is that the horse should of his own accord exhibit his finest airs and paces at set signals.”

The above excerpts are taken from The University of Adelaide Library.


‘On the Cavalry General’

‘On the Cavalry General’ is a discourse on the merits a cavalry general should have, and how to develop a cavalry force, and some tactical details to be applied in the field and in a festival exhibition. Again, we have chosen a couple of snippets from the text, in which Xenophon’s priorities regarding horses are clearly defined:

Having made sure that the horses are in good condition

the next business is to train the men.

“While the ranks are filling up, you must see that the horses get enough food to stand hard work since horses unfit for their work can neither overtake nor escape. You must see that they are docile because disobedient animals assist the enemy more than their own side. And horses that kick when mounted must be got rid of, for such brutes often do more mischief than the enemy. You must also look after their feet so that they can be ridden on rough ground, for you know that wherever galloping is painful to them, they are useless.”

The Jockey of Artemision, c.150–146 BC Image: Marsyas (2006)

“For getting horses’ feet into the best condition, if anyone has an easier and cheaper method than mine, by all means, adopt it. If not, I hold—and I speak from experience—that the right way is to throw down some stones from the road, averaging about a pound in weight, and to curry the horse on these and to make him stand on them whenever he goes out of the stable. For the horse will constantly use his feet on the stones when he is cleaned and when he is worried by flies. Try it, and you will find your horses’ feet round, and will believe in the rest of my rules.”


Further reading

Further reading:

Berenger, Richard The history and art of horsemanship London: T. Davies and T. Cadell 1771 pp. 219–234 Full text

The whole works of Xenophon London: Jones & Co. 1832 pp. 717–728 Full text


Morgan, Morris H. (trans.) The Art of Horsemanship by Xenophon Boston: Little, Brown 1893 pp. 13–68 Full text

Venezuelan Creoles WE

This entry was contributed to Wild Equus by Dr. Jose Luis Canelon of the Catedra Caballo Criollo Venezolano. Dr. Canelon, Jose Luis, was amongst other things, staunchly dedicated to the preservation of the Venezuelan Creole horses. News of his passing is personally heartfelt.

Catedra Caballo Criollo Venezolano.

Emeritus Professor. Universidad Centroccidental Lisandro Alvarado

“I joined the WEN to be in touch with other persons who work with wild horses.”


Species: Equus caballus

Subspecies/Breed/Type: Creole type

Country: Venezuela

Region/Province/Range: Apure. Merida

Population type: Feral and semi feral herds

Estimated Population size: about 400 horses (2015)

Management Authority:  Catedra Caballo Criollo Venezolano

Management Practices: Population Management Strategy is urgently needed to curb genetic erosion

Details of Population

The Venezuelan Creole may be found scattered throughout the country with the highest concentration of individuals in the area of the Llanos (200 meters above sea level) and in the Andean region Sierra Nevada National Park (4,000 meters above sea level) with completely different and extreme geographies. The Llanos had a very dry season for a few months and other season of heavy rains. In the Andean region there are occasional snow and low temperatures regularly.

We have two different groups one completely feral and another semi-feral. the features are typical of the other Creoles. Straight or sub-convex profile, height 1,32-1,49 meters, nostrils in inverted comma, very straight and strong back. Low insertion tail, inclined croup.It is characterized by its hardiness and livestock sense. fully adapted to the environment.

Structure and demographics

Issues worth noting and needed action

In urgent need of special goverment protection to stop genetic erosion.


This is an ongoing work, and as such, will be updated regularly as new information is made available.

Pottoka Ponies Piornal

This entry of the Pottoka herd in Extremadura was contributed to Wild Equus by my mentor and founder of the Pottokas en Piornal project, Lucy Rees.


Species: Equus caballus

Subspecies/Breed/Type: Pottoka (Basque Pony)

Country: Spain

Region/Province/Range: Sierra de Tormantos, Piornal (Extremadura-Caceres)

Population type: Feral

Management Authority:  Pottokas en Piornal

Estimated Population size: about 40 horses (2015)

Census August 2015

Foals 2015 m 5 (+ 1 that died) f 3

Yearlings    m 4 (b, 3n) f. 3  (d, 2n)

2 y-olds      m 1 (b)  f  4

3 & above   m 5 (b, 4s) f  15

Total 40, m 15, f 25


b= bachelor, s=stallion, n= still with natal band, d=dispersed  – 9/15 mares foaled. = 60%.

Of the 6 that did not foal, 4 were 3 y-o that foaled last year at 2, 1 is 3 y-o,  1 unknown (mare not seen for 3 months)


Details of Population

1200ha. of mountain between 700m and 1500m. , with two deep gorges. Lower-lying areas are oak wood (about 400ha) with scattered chestnut plantations, the latter mainly unavailable to the ponies. The rest is mainly high, dense heather, Spanish broom, bracken and rock, with occasional areas of grass.

Average winter temperature 2.8º; snow may cover areas over 1000m for up to a month. Average summer temperature 20.8º . Water is abundant except in dry summers when all but two springs may dry up. The ponies practice seasonal vertical migration.

The area may also be grazed by up to 600 goats. Occasional red deer, groups of fallow deer, wild boar, fox, martin, jineta, rabbits (few), walkers and cyclists share the area. No large predators.

The population was set up as an open-access study facility for equine researchers and students with non-invasive projects. All ponies can be identified individually and their life history is known. Pottokas are Basque ponies whose DNA variation corresponds to a wild, not domesticated breed. Ours have no management except culling to limit numbers.

Their social organization corresponds to other older feral populations: natal bands, home ranges (around 300ha.), natal dispersal, bachelor bands often joined by dispersing fillies. Three have tamed themselves but the rest cannot be touched although they admit close observation.

Population growth has been limited by culling. In 2014 one entire band (young stallion, old mare, her daughter and grand-daughter) were removed. In 2015 11 ponies (3 y-o stallion, 7 y-o mare, her yearling son, and 7 fillies of 1 and 2 years old were removed). The individuals were chosen to minimize social disruption, being mostly fillies in natal dispersal. To reduce possible conflicts each band was rounded up separately and the youngsters removed.

Despite apparent lack of good forage the ponies are in extremely good condition although lactating mares lose weight at the end of the summer. The ponies show an astonishing ability to self-heal even severe wounds. Parasite burden is negligible.

Structure and demographics

4 single-stallion natal bands, one bachelor band.
The population was set up in 2007/8 in Catalonia with two bands each of one stallion and three mares. On moving the population to its present location in 2011, a 3 year-old unrelated stallion was introduced.

Of the 11 foals conceived in Catalonia 9 were female. In Extremadura 20 colts and 19 fillies have been born.
Mortality:
12 y-o mare, piroplasmosis (Catalonia, 2007)
colt 6 months killed by hippies (c, 2008)
14 y-o stallion, infection from broken tooth (Extremadura, 2014)
12 y-o mare, herbicide poisoning (Extremadura, 2013)
yearling colt, eating plastic bag (E, 2014)
foal 3 weeks (E. 2015)
2 disappeared colts.

About half the fillies become pregnant as yearlings, giving a very fast-growing, female-skewed  population (see culling, below). Fillies that foal at 2 do not foal at 3. Colts begin (inefficiently) to form natal bands at 3 years old.

Issues worth noting and needed actions

a) Legal imperative to microchip, which causes stress and social disruption and is extremely difficult in practice. The European regulations allow exemption in wild or feral ponies but the Extremadura authorities do no recognize this.
b) Damage to fences and walls caused by herds of goats, whose owner refuses to use the gates, cause escapes, social disruption and conflicts with the police.

Bibliography and further reading

Genetic analysis in the basque pony-pottoka breed. Preliminary results

Genetic variability in two spanish horse populations: Preliminary results

Pottoka’s behaviour and training

El caballo al final de la última glaciación en el período postglacial


This is an ongoing work, and as such, will be updated regularly as new information is made available.

McCullough Peaks horses

This entry was contributed to Wild Equus by Dr. Jason Ransom of Colorado State University, member and specialist of the Wild Equus Network (WEN).


Species: Equus caballus

Subspecies/Breed/Type: American Mustang

Country: United States of America

Region/Province/Range: Park County – Wyoming

Population type: Semi feral-heavily managed

Estimated Population size: between 112-194 horses

Management Authority:  Bureau of Land Management -McCullough Peaks HMA

Images by Jason Ransom. Please respect © copyright!

Management Practices: 

The US Bureau of Land Management has managed this population with periodic round-ups, adopting removed horses to the public. Since 2004, management has more intensively been done using a time-released form of the immunocontraceptive PZP and periodic round-ups.

Details of Population

McCullough Peaks Herd Management Area is located Park County, Wyoming, USA (latitude 44°35‘N, longitude 108°40‘W), and consists of 44,400 ha of primarily open sagebrush steppe with badlands along the western edge. Vegetation consists of large expanses of small shrubs, grasses, and forbs. Pronghorn antelope and mule deer are sympatric with horses here and little natural depredation occurs. Elevations range from 1,200 m to 1,964 m. Mean annual temperature is 8.0°C (range -30.0– 37.8°C) and mean total annual precipitation is 271.2 mm (range=168.9–389.1 mm).

Structure and demographics

Population size reached a high of 495 horses before a large management removal in 2004, and now is maintained between 112 and 194 horses. Bands average 8 horses and many bands closely associate into herds; travelling, feeding, and resting together. At its largest population, bands with more than one stallion occurred, but are now infrequent. Bachelors form loosely associated ephemeral bands or range independently. Genetically, these horses are most related to draft breeds such as the Percheron, probably reflecting much of the early settlement activity around the old west town of Cody. Horses of all colors are in this herd, including Overo, Tobiano, and Sabino paint horses.

Issues worth noting and needed actions

Like most populations in the USA, available habitat for horses is finite and management is necessary to protect all natural resources while attempting to balance the multiple-use mandate for the federal lands where horses live.  The science needed for more-informed management is improving, but many obstacles persist. You can read much more in the 2013 National Research Council report “Using Science to Improve the BLM Wild Horse and Burro Program: A Way Forward

Bibliography and further reading

Additional details about this population, and specifically about behavior and fertility control, can be found in:

Ransom, J.I., Roelle, J.E., Cade, B.S., Coates-Markle, L., and A.J. Kane. 2011. Foaling rates in feral horses treated with the immunocontraceptive porcine zona pellucida. Wildlife Society Bulletin 35:343-352

Ransom, J.I., Cade, B.S., and N.T. Hobbs. 2010. Influences of immunocontraception on time budgets, social behavior, and body condition in feral horses. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 124:51-60

On-going behavior and ecology research from Dr. Ransom can be followed on Twitter @wildequids


If you have further information or images you would like to share please contact us by email.

More entries to the Wild Equus Atlas;

Venezuelan Creoles WEEntry from Dr. Jose Luis Canelon

Pottoka Piornal ponies WEEntry from Lucy Ress

Pryor Mountain wild horses WEEntry from Dr. Jason Ransom

McCullough Peaks horsesEntry from Dr. Jason Ransom

Aveto horses (WE)Entry from Evelina Isola

Galician wild ponies WEEntry from Dr. Laura Lagos

Namibia Desert horses WEEntry from Dr. Telané Greyling

Delft Island horses WEEntry from Wild Equus

Little Book Cliffs Wild Horses WEEntry from Dr. Jason Ransom

Gower ponies WE Entry from Jennie Nellist

Baguales WEEntry from Dr. Victor Moraga and Enrique Zunzunegui

Exmoor Ponies WE Entry from Sue McGeever

Tornquist feral horses WEEntry from Dr. Alberto Scorolli

Sabucedo horses WE Entry from Ivan Sanmartin Eirin

Cumberland Island horses WEEntry from Wild Equus

Feral horses of Cotopaxi WE – Entry from Javier Solis Méndez, Lucy Rees, Johanna Marlès and Juan Bermeo


Please share this initiative far and wide. Gracias!

This is an ongoing work, and as such, will be updated regularly as new information is made available.

Aveto horses (WE)

This entry was contributed  by Evelina Isola of WILD HORSEWATCHING – Cavalli Selvaggi dell’Aveto.

Species: Equus caballus

Subspecies/Breed/Type: Crossbreed Bardigiano/Franches Montagne

Country: Italy

Region/Province/Range: Parco Naturale Regionale dell’AvetoLiguria (Genova)

Population type: Feral-unmanaged

Estimated Population size: <50

Header image provided by Evelina Isola and gallery pictures provided by Paola Marinari. Please respect copyright!

Details of Population

They live in Liguria, in Tigullio Gulf hinterland (30 Km from the coast, Chiavari, Genova). They live between Sturla Valley and Penna Valley and another population lives in Graveglia Valley, few km from Sturla Valley at East. The territory is a typical Apennine mountain area. The Sturla/Penna population has an area of about 15-20 Km2. Graveglia Valley population has an area of 5-6 Km2.

They are the heritage of horses working in the valley at about 20 years ago. Since the last owner died their number grew up and the new generations never had relationship with humans. They feed, reproduce, find water and whatever they need in complete autonomy.  Their biology and their behaviour seems to be the same of wild american and mongolian horses.
They represent a great treasure for the territory because of their relationship with environment and habitat conservation
In the territory lives a population of wolfs, able to control by natural predation the increasing number of heads.

Structure and demographics

5 adult stallions identified. Adult to young ratio – 3,5:1

Census and further details presently under study in collaboration with the University of Genova.

Issues worth noting and needed actions

Six years ago, humans’ intolerance caused the kill – by shot – of two horses. For some people in the valleys, horses represent a danger for their fields and breeding, because during the winter, sometimes, horses move down from the hills top to the villages looking for warmer weather and easier feeding sources. For this, in 2010 was written an agreement between local municipalities, Aveto Regional Natural Park, breeders associations, health institutions and animals’ protection associations, in order to manage herds. For this agreement horses should be captured and transfer in another locations or donate to private people. But, many animals died during capture operations, others were kept by infarct when they were putted in the boxes. Some females died during labor.

Now we are carrying out a conservation program in order to find the correct juridical classification for them. For Italian laws, in fact, horses are only classified as “farm” or “sport” animals. We are raising public awareness of their unique value, on biological and ecological point of view, and of their value as an economic resource for local-slow-rural tourism.


If you have further information or images you would like to share please contact us by email.

More entries to the Wild Equus Atlas;

Venezuelan Creoles WEEntry from Dr. Jose Luis Canelon

Pottoka Piornal ponies WEEntry from Lucy Ress

Pryor Mountain wild horses WEEntry from Dr. Jason Ransom

McCullough Peaks horsesEntry from Dr. Jason Ransom

Aveto horses (WE)Entry from Evelina Isola

Galician wild ponies WEEntry from Dr. Laura Lagos

Namibia Desert horses WEEntry from Dr. Telané Greyling

Delft Island horses WEEntry from Wild Equus

Little Book Cliffs Wild Horses WEEntry from Dr. Jason Ransom

Gower ponies WE Entry from Jennie Nellist

Baguales WEEntry from Dr. Victor Moraga and Enrique Zunzunegui

Exmoor Ponies WE Entry from Sue McGeever

Tornquist feral horses WEEntry from Dr. Alberto Scorolli

Sabucedo horses WE Entry from Ivan Sanmartin Eirin

Cumberland Island horses WEEntry from Wild Equus

Feral horses of Cotopaxi WE – Entry from Javier Solis Méndez, Lucy Rees, Johanna Marlès and Juan Bermeo


Please share this initiative far and wide. Gracias!

This is an ongoing work, and as such, will be updated regularly as new information is made available.

Galician wild ponies WE

This Wild Equus Atlas entry was provided by Dr. Laura Lagos, based on work and research carried out with the Galician wild ponies. Kudos!


Our atlas is a forever going-on project aimed at registering and mapping the free-living horse populations around the world. Please consider getting involved! You can register a population, share knowledge, or display your images!


Species: Equus caballus

Subspecies/Breed/Type: Galician wild ponies

Special note: Galician Ponies, which belong to the group of Atlantic Ponies or Garranos (Bárcena 2012). There is no evidence of this population of Garranos coming form domesticated populations, and it has even been proposed that the population of wild ponies living in the mountains of Galicia may constitute a subspecies of wild horse, Equus ferus atlanticus (Barcena, 2011). However this hypothesis needs DNA confirmation. Some individuals in the population having certain morphological characteristics have been registered as “Galician pure breed”

Country: Spain

Region/Province/Range: Sierra de A Groba (A Groba Mountain Range), Pontevedra (Galicia)

Population type: Semi feral – slightly managed (Semi-feral according to a classification based on management, wild according to their probable origin.)

Estimated Population size: estimated 850-900 ponies

Management Practices

The traditional management of the Galician ponies includes the removal of the majority of the foals in annual round ups (curro). In the past yearlings were tamed and used for transport, haulage and work in the farms. Today foals are slaughtered for meat for consumption of the local people. In this round ups the manes and tails are shared. In the Sierra de A Groba the management is a bit more intensive, thus ponies are rounded up twice a year and, in these last years during captures ponies are also dewormed and treated for external parasites. In addition, adults are also equipped with micro-chips since it was established in a Galician Decree for domestic horses.

The traditional curros and this old harvesting system of the wild horse population has a great ethnographic value. Today they are still an important social event for locals and are becoming more and more a touristic attraction.

These ponies as a general fact inhabit communal land. It consist on communal forest, called Monte Vecinal en Mano Común (MVMC), belonging to a rural community formed by a group of people living usually in a parish, each parish has their communal forest. The people who traditionally harvest the ponies are called besteiros and they usually are not the owners of the land.

Ponies in these mountains are fire branded. The president of the association has a book with all the marks; some of them have been the same for generations. They are micro chipped since 1-2 years ago.

Details of Population

The Sierra de A Groba is a mountain range, situated in the southwest of Galicia, by the see in one of the most populated areas of Galicia (164 inhabitants per km2 in the surrounding municipalities). Altitudes are between 50-650 m above sea level. The landscapes consist on scrublands dominated by gorse (Ulex europaeus, Ulex minor) and heathers (Erica sp., Calluna vulgaris) together with forest of pines (Pinus pinaster, Pinus radiata) and eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus) cultivated for the wood and paper industry. Cattle, sheep, and goats in some areas, are raised in these mountains. Wolves, which are the natural predators of the Galician wild ponies, were extirpated from these mountains in the seventies. The ponies live in an area of about 12,000 ha.

The characteristics of the Galician ponies are reduced size, frequently bay or black coat, curved back, big abdomen and a dense “moustache” which presumably is an adaptation to the consumption of the prickly gorse. The Galician ponies in the Sierra de A Groba are the smallest in Galicia: the average height on shoulders for mares is 119 cm. The moustache is present in about 47% of the mares. In Sierra de A Groba the ponies are called “burras”.

Structure and demographics

Removal of foals means that the sex ratio of adults is artificial and it is maintained at 40-50 mares per stallion. There are 18-20 stallions in the population. Studies on wild ponies in other mountains of Galicia indicate that foaling rate is 0,67 (Lagos 2013), however, in these mountains the habitat is rougher, consequently, the foaling rates are presumably lower.

The census is decreasing. Thirty years ago the population size was 2,000-2,500 ponies (Iglesia 1973) and only 8-10 years ago 1,500 ponies lived in these mountains. The decrease is due to the disappearance of their traditional uses of the ponies, and since 2008 due to the implementation of the regulations for micro chipping of the ponies and other measures which burden this traditional system.

Issues worth noting and needed actions

The implementation of the regulations for micro chipping of the ponies and other measures which burden this traditional system are causing a reduction of the population of ponies and many besteiros giving up this tradition that their families have continued for generations. It is necessary to have regulations adapted to the characteristics of this population of wild ponies.  At least, the exceptions contemplated by the European regulations (EC No 504/2008) for the equidae constituting defined populations living under wild or semi-wild conditions should be applied.

There is an insufficient knowledge of the biological, ecological and cultural value of this population by the managers of the land and the government. It is necessary to disseminate the importance of this population to the public, to the managers of the land and to the government.

Research is needed in order to learn what is the true importance of Galician wild ponies as key species in the habitat, as well as to improve knowledge about their genetics and ecology.

The management of this populations should be more adapted to the biology of these animals.

Bibliography and Further reading

BÁRCENA, F. 2012. Garranos: Os póneis selvagens (Equus ferus sp.) do norte da Península Ibérica. Pages 75-96 en N. Vieira de Brito y G. Candeiras (coord.), Libro de Actas del I Congresso Internacional do Garrano. Arcos de Valdevez. Portugal.

IGLESIA, P. 1973. Los Caballos Gallegos Explotados en Régimen de Libertad o Ca¬ballos Salvajes de Galicia. Tesis, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, 1.205 p

LAGOS, L. 2013. Ecología del lobo (Canis lupus), del poni salvaje (Equus ferus atlanticus) y del ganado vacuno semiextensivo (Bos taurus) en Galicia: interacciones depredador-presa. Tesis, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, 458 pp.

LAGOS, L. 2014. O sistema tradicional de aproveitamento dos ponis atlánticos salvaxes nos montes da Groba, Morgadáns e Galiñeiro. Retos no século XXI. Revista del Instituto de Estudios Miñoranos 12/13


If you have further information or images you would like to share please contact us by email.

More entries to the Wild Equus Atlas;

Venezuelan Creoles WEEntry from Dr. Jose Luis Canelon

Pottoka Piornal ponies WEEntry from Lucy Ress

Pryor Mountain wild horses WEEntry from Dr. Jason Ransom

McCullough Peaks horsesEntry from Dr. Jason Ransom

Aveto horses (WE)Entry from Evelina Isola

Galician wild ponies WEEntry from Dr. Laura Lagos

Namibia Desert horses WEEntry from Dr. Telané Greyling

Delft Island horses WEEntry from Wild Equus

Little Book Cliffs Wild Horses WEEntry from Dr. Jason Ransom

Gower ponies WE Entry from Jennie Nellist

Baguales WEEntry from Dr. Victor Moraga and Enrique Zunzunegui

Exmoor Ponies WE Entry from Sue McGeever

Tornquist feral horses WEEntry from Dr. Alberto Scorolli

Sabucedo horses WE Entry from Ivan Sanmartin Eirin

Cumberland Island horses WEEntry from Wild Equus

Feral horses of Cotopaxi WE – Entry from Javier Solis Méndez, Lucy Rees, Johanna Marlès and Juan Bermeo


This is an ongoing work, and as such, will be updated regularly as new information is made available. Please share this initiative far and wide. Gracias!

Namibia Desert horses WE

This entry was contributed to Wild Equus by Dr. Telané Greyling of the Namibia Wild Horses Foundation, member and specialist of the Wild Equus Network (WEN). You can visit the foundation website, where you will find more details about her work with the feral horses at the Namib Naukluft National Park.


Species: Equus caballus

Subspecies/Breed/Type: Namibia Desert horses

Country: Namibia

Region/Province/Range: Namib Naukluft National Park

Population type: Semi feral – slightly managed

Estimated Population size: about 175 horses (2015)

Management Authority: Government Agency – Ministry of Environment and Tourism

Details of Population

These horses’ ancestors became wild around 1914-1924 and were able to live relatively undisturbed since the area they inhabited was a restricted diamond area, the “Sperrgebiet”. The horses had little influence from people except for the railway line and station at Garub, where they could get water. The origin of the horses is believed to be mainly from a horse stud which were abandoned around 1921 and the stud’s horses joined horses already grazing on the Garub plains since the First World War, many horses of the Allied Forces, stationed at Garub for two months, were scattered by bombing from the German forces. These ancestors were believed to be mainly crossbreds of Cape Horses, Trakener, Hackney and Thouroughbred bloodlines. The present horses are of small and light built, about 14-15 hands tall and weighing around 400 kilograms.

The area the horses inhabit were incorporated into the Namib Naukluft National Park in 1986 from when on an interest in management of the horses by the Namibia Ministry of Environment and Tourism became relevant. Population estimates were made in 1988 and 1991 and the population reduced by capture in a drought during 1992. The remaining population of 117 horses were individually identified and catalogued in December 1993 and has been monitored ever since. Another severe drought during 1998 caused the near removal of the horses from the desert, the controversy between proponents and opponents within the National Park authorities and the public led to a study on the ecology of the area during 2003-2005. A subsequent policy was accepted that the horses will be protected within the Namib Naukluft National Park with minimal interference, though ensuring a stable population within upper and lower limits.

Structure and demographics

During the past 20 years the population size has fluctuated between 89 and 286 horses. Good rainfall years in the late 80’s were followed by severe droughts in the 90’s and then followed by 12 years of abundance that ended by 2012. At present the Southern Namib are in the mid of a dry cycle again. Apart from malnutrition during drought, other mortality factors include predation mainly by spotted hyena, motor vehicle accidents on the B4 road to Lüderitz, fatal injuries, old age and complications (dystocia, etc.) while giving birth.

The population is typically structured in breeding groups, which consists of a stallion (sometimes 2 or more), adult mares, their offspring as well as youngsters not related to the adults. Peripheral stallions are also part of some groups, these stallions are not allowed interaction with adult mares in the group but contributes to the cohesion of the group by looking after youngsters and being a buffer zone around the group. Stallions not associated with breeding groups are called bachelor stallions who live alone or associate in small groups. At present the 175 horses are distributed into 32 breeding groups (ranging from 2 to 7 individuals) and 56 bachelor stallions. The sex ratio is 62% stallions to 38% mares and 78% adults to 22% juveniles (less than 5 years old). The main periods of significant changes in groups during the past 20 years have been influenced or caused by human interference (removal of horses) and severe droughts.

Issues worth noting and needed actions

Regarding policy and local opinion the population at Garub are secure, threats include severe drought and increased predation, therefore the activity of spotted hyenas in the area are being monitored and preparation for provision of a supplement protein mineral lick is in process.

Bibliography and further reading:

Please see more at Namibia Wild Horses Foundation


If you have further information or images you would like to share please contact us by email.

More entries to the Wild Equus Atlas;

Venezuelan Creoles WEEntry from Dr. Jose Luis Canelon

Pottoka Piornal ponies WEEntry from Lucy Ress

Pryor Mountain wild horses WEEntry from Dr. Jason Ransom

McCullough Peaks horsesEntry from Dr. Jason Ransom

Aveto horses (WE)Entry from Evelina Isola

Galician wild ponies WEEntry from Dr. Laura Lagos

Namibia Desert horses WEEntry from Dr. Telané Greyling

Delft Island horses WEEntry from Wild Equus

Little Book Cliffs Wild Horses WEEntry from Dr. Jason Ransom

Gower ponies WE Entry from Jennie Nellist

Baguales WEEntry from Dr. Victor Moraga and Enrique Zunzunegui

Exmoor Ponies WE Entry from Sue McGeever

Tornquist feral horses WEEntry from Dr. Alberto Scorolli

Sabucedo horses WE Entry from Ivan Sanmartin Eirin

Cumberland Island horses WEEntry from Wild Equus

Feral horses of Cotopaxi WE – Entry from Javier Solis Méndez, Lucy Rees, Johanna Marlès and Juan Bermeo


Please share this initiative far and wide. Gracias!

This is an ongoing work, and as such, will be updated regularly as new information is made available.

Delft Island horses WE

Species: Equus caballus

Subspecies/Breed/Type/Common names: Delft type

Country: Sri Lanka

Region/Province/Range: Delft Island

Population type: Feral

Estimated Population size: about 450 horses (2014)

Management Authority:  

Management Practices: Drinking water is often provided to the horses in the drier months

Details of Population

The roughly oval-shaped Delft Island is approximately 49,5 km² with close to 4034 hectares.(8kms long by about 6km wide at the widest point.) The island is characteristic of semi-arid tropical island landscape, dominated by palm trees, grasses and shrubs. The mean annual rainfall lies between 500-700mm, with seasonal peaks in April and November.

Structure and demographics

No in depth studies are known to this date

Issues worth noting and needed actions

The Delft ponies are threatened due to overgrazing by the large population of cattle.

In the drier months horses are noted to starve and lack water. Talks of a Wild horse Sanctuary were under-way in 2013 which would protect the horses in an area of approximately 530 hectares,  but no advances have been made to date.

Bibliography and Further reading

Sustainable Development of Delft Island: An ecological, socio-economic and archaeological assessment Occasional Papers of IUCN Sri Lanka No. 1. (2013


Help us improve our Wild Equus – Atlas entries!

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If you have further information or images you would like to share please contact us by email.

More entries to the Wild Equus Atlas;

Venezuelan Creoles WEEntry from Dr. Jose Luis Canelon

Pottoka Piornal ponies WEEntry from Lucy Ress

Pryor Mountain wild horses WEEntry from Dr. Jason Ransom

McCullough Peaks horsesEntry from Dr. Jason Ransom

Aveto horses (WE)Entry from Evelina Isola

Galician wild ponies WEEntry from Dr. Laura Lagos

Namibia Desert horses WEEntry from Dr. Telané Greyling

Delft Island horses WEEntry from Wild Equus

Little Book Cliffs Wild Horses WEEntry from Dr. Jason Ransom

Gower ponies WE Entry from Jennie Nellist

Baguales WEEntry from Dr. Victor Moraga and Enrique Zunzunegui

Exmoor Ponies WE Entry from Sue McGeever

Tornquist feral horses WEEntry from Dr. Alberto Scorolli

Sabucedo horses WE Entry from Ivan Sanmartin Eirin

Cumberland Island horses WEEntry from Wild Equus

Feral horses of Cotopaxi WE – Entry from Javier Solis Méndez, Lucy Rees, Johanna Marlès and Juan Bermeo


Please share this initiative far and wide. Gracias!

This is an ongoing work, and as such, will be updated regularly as new information is made available.